Artificial Intelligence

Artificial Intelligence
Artificial intelligence is a part of computer technology that study about the how the machine can interact as like as human beings in the real world.As it is the part of the science it helps in finding solutions to complex problem in a more human-like fashion.Artificial research is highly technical and specialised, deeply divided into subfields that often fail to communicate with each other. Artificial intelligence is associated with different different part such as for solving different problems related with math and other physical part , to relate things faster with psychological part, cognition, biology and philosophy, and many others we can  insert artificial intelligence .Now even though the man couldn't create the self creating capability and self doing capability including with feeling in the machine somehow the machine is doing progress day by day due to which its demand is also increasing day by day. As now also some people don't know about artificial intelligence still working in the some part of computer .Some part where the artificial intelligence is working is self correction or showing incorrect mark (red bar) in Microsoft office (word, excel, etc) used, games (chess and others),creating virtual interface while doing some practical due to less harm is caused etc.
computers are fundamentally well suited to performing mechanical computations, using fixed programmed rules. This allows artificial machines to perform simple monotonous tasks efficiently and reliably, which humans are-suited to. For more complex problems, things get more difficult; unlike humans, computers have trouble understanding specific situations, and adapting to new situations.
         The working application of artificial intelligence are many some of them are military for autonomous control and target identification, to the entertainment industry for computer games and robotic pets, dealing providing many information by hospitals, bank , and insurances company to customer behaviour and detect trends.

Organization and management

                Organization and Management


Organization:Meaning
There are many organizations around around us. We continuously depend upon them for fulfilling large number of our needs. For understanding them,we however need to know how they are special, how they operate with help of people  and why. The following are some of the definitions of an organization which describe what they and their specialties are and what and how they perform to legitmize their existence in our society.
      An organization is
   A collection of interacting and interdepending people who unite to accomplish a common goal. It is,            therefore, a human association which represents a certain pattern of relationships among them.
   A structured social system having shared norms, values and beliefs where the members perform                      coordinated activities to achieve a common goal or a set of goals. An organization has a structured                setting which specifies relationships among the members. Functions in the organization are                              differentiated to be performed by different people and finally integrated towards attaining some                      predetermined goals.
    Organizations are the social units formed to accomplish some goals through the transactions of values.
          People obtain their econ mic, psychological and social needs in exchange o their contributions.
          Organization is a particular pattern of structure, people, tasks and techniques.
    As a system organization is a set of input, process and output through relatively standardized procedures for transactions in the market. 

Evolution of Computer

Evolution of Management

Scientific management

Scientific management school was pioneered by F.W Taylor in 1911 and carried in by others through the years (Henry Gantt, Frank Gilbreth, Lilian Gilbreth). It is a  totally revolutionary way of thinking about the problems of works and organizations. The major theme of this theory is that work could be studied in scientific way.He advocated an inductive, emperical, detailed study of each job to determine the one best way to organize work. The primary emphasis was application of scientific method to solution of managerial and organizational problems.

• At the beginning of his career he found at Midvale Steel works that the incentive rates were cut by the employers, employees restricted the output (soldering), poor methods of training, lack of standards of performance and spirit of cooperation on the part of both management and labors. Concluding that Management practices of the time were inefficient, principles of management outlined the following points.
• Rather than depending upon the rule of thumb, management must develop alternatives and evaluate them by making systemic and objective comparisons among them to see which the best is . Taylor and his colleagues believed there is one best way of to organize work and this could be a ascertained through scientific methods.
• It focused on division of workers. Entire organizational works should be divide into managerial and managerial jobs. Planning should be differentiated from execution  functions.Vertical specialization would improve job performance. He proposed specialized  experts called foremen (eight different types), who were reponsible for specific of workers' jobs.

Business Environment

Business Environment

Business Environment Defined

         Environment is an abstract concept. It refers to a set of forces including events, situations, phenomena, objects, organization, individuals and groups that have bearing in the organizational affairs. Environment is the aggregate of these factors which influence decisions, functions, policies and goals of the organization. The components of the environment are present both inside and outside the organization. The components lying inside the organization. The components lying inside the organization are called internal components and those outside are known a s external components.

Internal environment

• Organization missions, goals and policies
• Managerial and organizational practices and culture 
• Resource such as finance and human capital
• Working procedures
• Department structures

Organizational mission statements

An organization's mission statement describes what the organization stands for and why it exists. It explains the overall purpose of the organizations of its type.

  

A mission statement is more than words on a piece of paper; it reveals a company's philosophy, as well as its purpose. This declaration should be a living, breathing document that provides information and inspiration for the members of the organization. A mission statement should answer the questions, "What are our values?" and " what do we stand for?" This statement provides focus for an organization by rallying its members to work together to achieve its common goals. A good mission statement is precise in identifying the following intents of company :

• customers-who will be served 
• products/services- what will be produced 
• location- where the products/services will be produced 
• philosophy - what ideology will be followed 

Corporate social Responsibility (Management)

Corporate social Responsibility

We frequently see and hear about social contribution of organizations beyond their basic purpose and functions. They spend money for developing education, improving public health,conserving and promoting environment and controlling negative impact they are causing. They are open, honest and transparent toward stakeholders and provide reliable information to them. They believe and practise corporate governance, provide accurate information to government and pay tax.

   

The term society refers to all those individuals, institution and other entities that come on contract of the business firm and the tern responsibility denoted some kind of an obligation on the part of the business firm to  fulfill the demand of such individuals or institutions instead of as they help in business activities. So, social responsibility is the obligation of an organization to protect social norms values and rules of society within which the organization performs business activities to fulfill their objectives.   

Database management system

                     Database management system

Introduction to DBMS
A database-management system (DBMS) is a collection of interrelated data and a set of programs to access those data. The collection of data, usually referred to as the database, contains information relevant to an enterprise.The primary goal of a DBMS is to provide a way to store and retrieve database information that is both convenient and efficient. Database systems are designed to manage large bodies of information. Management of data involves both defining structures for storage of information and providing mechanisms for the manipulation of information. In addition, the database system must ensure the safety of the information stored, despite system crashes or attempts at unauthorized access. If data are to be shared among several users, the system must avoid possible anomalous results. Because information is so important in most organizations, computer scientists have developed a large body of concepts and techniques for managing data. These concepts and technique form the focus of this book. This chapter briefly introduces the principles of database systems.
1.1 Database System Applications
Databases are widely used. Here are some representative applications:
 • Banking: For customer information, accounts, and loans, and banking transactions.
 • Airlines: For reservations and schedule information. Airlines were among the first to use databases in a           geographically distributed manner terminals situated around the world accessed the central database             system through phone lines and other data networks.
 • Universities: For student information, course registrations, and grades.
 • Creditcardtransactions:Forpurchasesoncreditcardsandgenerationofmonth- ly statements.
 • Telecommunication:Forkeepingrecordsofcallsmade,generatingmonthlybills, maintaining balances on prepaid calling cards, and storing information about the communication networks.
• Finance: For storing information about holdings, sales, and purchases of finan- cial instruments such as stocks and bonds.
• Sales: For customer, product, and purchase information.
• Manufacturing: For management of supply chain and for tracking production of items in factories, inventoriesof items in warehouses/stores, and ordersfor items.
 • Human resources: For information about employees, salaries, payroll taxes and benefits, and for generation of paychecks.

Computer aided design

     Computer aided design

A major use of computer graphics is in design processes, particularly for engineering and architectural systems, but almost all products are now computer designed. Generally referred to as CAD, computer-aided design methods are now routinely used in the design of buildings, automobiles, aircraft, watercraft, space- craft, computers, textiles, and many, many other products. For some design applications; object are f&t displayed in a wireframe outline form that shows the overall sham and internal features of obiects. Wireframe displays also allow designers to quickly see the effects of interact the adjustments to design shapes.  Software packages for CAD applications typically provide the designer with a multi-window environment. The various displayed windows can show enlarged sections or different views of objects. Circuits  and networks for communications, water supply, or other utilities are constructed with repeated placement of a few graphical shapes. The shapes used in a design represent the different net- work or circuit components. Standard shapes for electrical, electronic, and logic circuits are often supplied by the design package. For other applications, a designer can create personalized symbols that are to be used to construct the net- work or circuit. The system is then designed by successively placing components into the layout, with the graphics package automatically providing the connections between components. This allows the designer t~ quickly try out alternate circuit schematics for minimizing the number of components or the space requirement for systems.

Deadlock

Deadlock

In computer there is a lots of tasks that is to be carried out in CPU there task as a part is known as the process. For the completion of the process there is need of the resources through which the process is to be completed. And there may contain many process that need to share same resource. Due to one process should wait until it gets the chance to finish the process. But if the process remain unterminated due not getting  share to resource due to other process in the way show the condition that the deadlock occur.

For example, take a system with one tape drive and one plotter. Process P1 request the tape drive and process P2 requests the plotter. Both requests are granted. Now P1 requests the plotter (without giving up the tape drive) and P2 requests the tape drive (without giving up the plotter). Neither request can be granted so both processes enter a deadlock situation.

A deadlock is a situation where a group of processes is permanently blocked as a result of each process having acquired a set of resources needed for its completion and having to wait for release of the remaining resources held by others thus making it impossible for any of the deadlocked processes to proceed.

 Deadlocks can occur in concurrent environments as a result of the uncontrolled granting of the system resources to the requesting processes.

System Model:

Deadlocks can occur when processes have been granted exclusive access to devices, files and so forth. A system consists of a finite number of resources to be distributed among a number of competing processes.

 The resources can be divided into several types, each of which consists of some number of identical instances. CPU cycles, memory space, files and I/O devices (such as printers and tape drives) are examples of resource types. If a system has two tape drives then the resource type tape drive has two instances. 

Whenever a process wants to utilize any resource, it must make a request for it. It may request as many resources as it wants but it should not exceed the total number of resources available with the system. Once the process has utilized the resource it must release it. Therefore, a sequence of events to use a resource is:

i. Request the resource:

ii. Use the resource:

iii. Release the resource:

Request and release of resources can be accomplished through the wait and signal operations on semaphores.

 A system table records whether each resource is free or allocated, and, if a resource is allocated, to which process. If a process requests a resource that is currently allocated to another process, it can be added to a queue of processes waiting for this resource.

Deadlock Characterization (Condition for Deadlock):

Deadlocks are undesirable features. In the most of deadlock situation process is waiting for the release of some resource concurrently possessed by some deadlocked process. A deadlock situation can arise if the following four conditions hold simultaneously in a system:

• Mutual exclusion

• Hold and wait

• No preemption

• Circular wait

Mutual exclusion:

At least one resource must be held in a non-sharable mode; that is only one process at a time can use the resource. If another process requests that resource, the requesting process must be delayed until the resource has been released.

Hold and wait:

A process must be holding at least one resource and waiting to acquire additional resources that are currently being held by other processes.

No preemption:

Resources cannot be preempted; that is, a resource can be released only voluntarily by the process holding it, after that process has completed its task.

Circular wait:

A set {P0, P1, …, Pn} of waiting processes must exist such that P0 is waiting for a resource that is held by P1, P1 is waiting for a resource that is held by P2, …, Pn-1 is waiting for a resource that is held by Pn, and Pn is waiting for a resource that is held by P0.

Input output management

Wednesday, August 14, 2013

Input output management

Device management is perhaps an operating system’s greatest challenge. The operating system must control a collection of devices with multidimensional difference. Device differs in their speed, information volume, purpose and the communication protocols. On some system thousands of different devices could potentially be connected to the machine, each of which requires its own unique operating system support. An all of this management must be accomplished in an environment of parallelism. Device must operate mostly independent of the CPU.
One of the main functions of an operating system is to control all the computer’s I/O (Input/Output) devices. It must issue commands to the devices, catch interrupts, and handle errors. It should also provide an interface between the devices and the rest of the system that is simple and easy to use. To the extent possible, the interface should be the same for all devices (device independence).

Although it must be deal with a diverse set of devices, the abstraction presented to applications should be as device independent as possible. The physical characteristics of floppy disks, CD ROMs, printer and main memory vary greatly, but application should be able to read from or write to them as if they were all the same.